Ethnographic A - Z

Letter A

ABORIGINAL
Designates indigenous peoples in general when written aborigines, but refers to the Australian indigenous populations when written Aborigines. Latin: aborigines = original inhabitants (ab = from; origo = beginning, origin)

ACCULTURATION
Change due to contact between societies or groups of different cultures, whereby either side adopts social or cultural traits from the other. Latin: ad = to, near to; cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

AFFINE
A relative by marriage. An in-law. Latin: affinis =neighbouring, related by marriage (ad = to; finis = border, limit)

AGE CLASS/AGE SET
A social group (usually of men) who have been ini-tiated together at about the same age. The group members remain the same throughout life as their age class passes through different stages or age grades - such as that of warriors or elders. Latin: classis = class, rank

AGE GRADE
A social category based on age within a series of such categories through which an age class passes in the course of life. See Age Class/Age Set. Latin: gradus = step, pace, grade

AGNATIC DESCENT
See Patrilineal descent. Latin: agnatus = belonging to by birth, blood related by the father's side; descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend)

AMULET
Object considered to have a special power to protect or to bring luck. See Fetish.

ANIMISM
A belief that spirits dwell in natural phenomena and objects. See Mana. Latin: anima = air, breath, soul.

ANTHROPOLOGY
Formerly anthropology referred to physical anthropology, which is the study of the development and the physical characteristics of human beings. Nowadays, it usually refers to cultural anthropology and/or social anthropology, which study the social and cultural aspects of man. Greek: anthropos = man, human being; logos = word, science.

APPLIED ANTHROPOLOGY
The practical application of anthropology, i.e. in development or aid projects. Latin: applicare = apply ; Greek: anthropos =man, human being; logos = word, science.

ARCHAEOLOGY
The study of the development of human culture in ancient times through material finds and traces left in the ground. Greek: archaiologia = antiquarian lore, ancient history (archaios = from the beginning, ancient, former; logos = word, science)

Letter B

BAND
In anthropology: a social group among hunter-gatherers. Usually small in size, the number of members may vary depending on the availibility of food/game in the area collectively used.

BIG MAN SYSTEM
In Melanesia including New Guinea. A system of non-hereditary leadership. The position of a Big Man depends on his eloquence, personal skill and ability to collect and redistribute goods at feasts in order to gain followers. See Redistribution. Greek: systema = whole compounded of several parts.

BILATERAL KINSHIP
See Cognatic descent. Latin: bis = twice, twofold; lateralis = belonging to the side (latus = side)

BLOOD FEUD
A continuous state of revenge and murder between two kin grops.

BRIDEPRICE/BRIDEWEALTH
Occurs mostly in patrilineal societies where the rights over a woman - including her fertility and labour - are transferred from her own kin group to that of her husband's. Common among surplus-producing small-scale cultivators and pastoralists. See Dowry.

Letter C

CARBON 14 DATING
A way of dating organic archaeological material by calculating the remaining percentage of radioactive carbon in it. C 14 decays at a constant rate and has a halving time of about 5 730 years (for practical reasons a halving time of about 5 500 years is used). Latin: carbo = coal, charcoal; datum = given date (dare = to give)

CARGO CULTS
A number of millennial movements - often religious - especially in Melanesia (Western Pacific) arose when the indigenous cultures came into contact with Western culture. The central idea was that Western material goods would become available by supernatural means and delivered by the mythological ancestors by boat or by air. (Millennial = the idea of a future ideal state.) Spanish: cargo = office. Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

CARGO SYSTEM
Hierarchy of religious offices in Central and South America. The holder of office gains political prestige and power by throwing religious feasts, a duty connected with each successive office. Spanish: cargo = office. Greek: system = whole compounded of several parts

CASTE
Traditional Indian hierarchical social order based on ideas of ritual purity and impurity. There is no equi-valent of 'caste' in the Indian languages. Instead one uses two words; 'varna', meaning colour, and 'jati', meaning birth. The four main categories or varna are Brahman (priests), Kshatriya (warriors, rulers), Vaishya (agriculturalists, peasants, traders) and Sudra (artisans, servants). In everyday life, the ideology is expressed in a set of localized caste groups (jati) as well as subcastes, each connected with a specific name and - mostly - occupation. The different 'scheduled castes' (also called Dalit, Harijans, 'Untouchables') are at the lowest end of the caste hierarchy. One is born into a certain caste and marriage is allowed only within it. The caste system is officially abolished. Latin: castus = pure

CIRCUMCISION
The removal before puberty of the foreskin on boys or the clitoris and sometimes the labia on girls. Circumcision expresses their new social position as well as cultural identity. Widespread ritual in many cultures, usually in a religious context as part of a rite of passage. See Rite of Passage. Latin: circumcisio = cutting around, circumcision (circumcidere = to cut around)

CLAN
Descent group whose members trace descent from a common ancestress/ancestor, often a mythological figure, in either the female or the male line (i.e. unilaterally) without knowing the actual connections to her/him.

COGNATIC DESCENT
(1) A mode of tracing descent from an ancestor/an-cestress through any combination of female or male links. The dominant kin system in Western society. (2) Synonymous with bilateral or consanguineal. See Kindred. Latin: cognatus = related by blood, kindred; descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend)

CONSANGUINEAL
A relative by birth, or a blood relative, in contrast to inlaws. An adopted person might also be regarded as consanguineal. Thus, consanguinity need not be genetic/biological but a socially constructed category. Latin: consanguineus = of the same blood (con = (together) with, sanguis = blood)

COSMIC TREE/TREE OF THE WORLD
A frequent image in different cultures for the centre of the universe. It joins heaven, earth and underworld, and may with techniques of ecstacy, as in shamanism, provide an active passage and transition to other worlds. The cross of Christianity is sometimes seen as the image of the cosmic tree. In the ancient Nordic religion the tree named Yggdrasil is the universal centre. Greek: kosmos = order, world, universe

COSMOLOGY
A people's assumptions and beliefs regarding the world, its origin and organisation, as well as the role and place of humans and spirits in it. Greek: kosmos = order, world; logos = word, teaching, science

CREOLE
(1) A developed language originating from contacts between groups speaking different languages. (2) A person of mixed ancestry. See Pidgin. Latin: creare = create

CRO-MAGNON
Modern Man (Homo sapiens sapiens). The earliest cultural remains date from some 35-50,000 years ago. Named after the place of discovery, a cave in the southwest of France.

CROSS-COUSIN
Ego's Father's Sister's child or Mother's Brother's child. The children of siblings of different sex.

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
The study of societies/cultures and how man is shaped by, as well as creates, a given socio-cultural environment. Cultural anthropology used to focus more on the cultural contents of society than its social relations, but nowadays (in Sweden) it does not differ much from social anthropology. Both are generally referred to as anthropology. Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate). Greek: anthropos = man, human being, logos = word, teaching, science

CULTURAL ECOLOGY
A branch within social/cultural anthropology pertaining to the study of how human populations interact in a given environment. Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate). Greek: oikos = house, household; logos = word, teaching, science

CULTURAL RELATIVISM
An ethical position within anthropology stating that cultures can be understood and evaluated only in terms of their own norms and standards. Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate); relativus = having reference, referring (referre = to bring back, refer to)

CULTURE
Usually pertaining to the fine arts, literature and philosophy. In anthropology understood both as a system of meaning (knowledge, ideas, norms, moral, ethics) shared by a social group and its concrete expressions (customs, habits, material things). Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

Letter D

DEMOGRAPHY
Population studies of a statistical kind; e.g. how the distribution of sex and age varies in relation to social and/or economic factors. Greek: demos = people, district; graphe = writing, description (graphein = to write, describe)

DESCENT GROUP
A kin group whose membership is based on a rule of descent. Depending on the society, the descent status can be patrilineal, matrilineal, or cognatic. Latin: descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend)

DEVELOPMENT
A progressive change usually understood as a change from simple to more complex. Currently it designates the scientific/technological development which leads to economic wealth.

DIFFUSION
The spreading of cultural elements such as habits, ideas and technology from one population to another. Latin: diffusio = spreading out, diffusion (diffundere = to spread out)

DIVINATION
Way of obtaining otherwise hidden information and securing decisions from supernaturals, for example about the future, sickness or the will of gods and spirits. Latin: divinatio = faculty of foreseeing, predicting (divinare = foresee, foretell, predict)

DOMESTIC GROUP
A social group sharing living quarters, food, and usually jointly controlling family property. Latin: domesticus = belonging to the house(hold) (domus = house, household)

DOUBLE DESCENT/DUAL DESCENT
A fairly rare kinship system where certain rights, duties and property are inherited through the father (patrilineal descent) and other possessions are passed through the mother (matrilineal descent). Latin: descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend); dualis = containing two (duo = two)

DOWRY
(1) The gifts made by a bride's kin group to that of her groom's in connection with her marriage. (2) The share of the family property given to an outmarrying woman. See Brideprice/ Bridewealth.

DREAMTIME/THE DREAMING
In Australian Aboriginal religion the mythical time which preceded the visible world. During the Dream-time the visible world was created by mythical primeval beings. Their vital forces live on in humans, animals, plants and wherever they have moved on earth. Consequently, the land is of utmost importance to the Aborigines.

Letter E

ECOLOGICAL NICHE
The specific place of a population or a species within an ecosystem. Greek: oikos = house; logos = word, knowledge.

ECONOMIC ANTHROPOLOGY
The study of the economic life as a subsystem in society. Traditionally, economic anthropology has dealt with small-scale societies with non-monetary or only partially monetized economies. It now in-cludes industrialized states and issues like gender, common property resources, the informal sector and mass-marketing in urban contexts. Greek: oikonomia = management of a household (oikos = house (hold), nomos = custom, law); anthropos = man, human being; logos = word, teaching, science

ENDOGAMY
A requirement for marriage within a defined group or social category, for example one's own caste or clan. This limitation serves as an expression of social identity. The opposite requirement pertains to exogamy. See Exogamy. Grekiska: endon = within (the family); gamos = wedding, marriage (gamein = to marry)

ENTREPRENEUR
(1) A person who creates a new business enterprise by investment of resources and by taking risks in order to make money. (2) A person involved in an undertaking by renewing, innovating and coordinating resources, and by seizing opportunities in order to expand and eventually make a profit. Latin: inter = among, amid, between; prehendo = to lay hold on, seize

ETHNICITY
Ethnic identity. A dynamic concept based on how a sociocultural group identifies itself in relation to other ethnic groups or nation states. Greek: ethnikos = belonging to a nation, people (ethnos = nation, people)

ETHNOCENTRISM
Tendency to take one's own culture for given and as a norm for evaluating and judging (people from) other cultures. See Cultural relativism. Greek: ethnos = nation, people; kentron = middle point, centre (= Latin: centrum)

ETHNOGRAPHIC PRESENT
The use of the present tense in anthropological descriptions and reports although they describe a situation that is historical - a certain time has already passed between the fieldwork and the actual reporting. Ethnographic present has also been used in earlier ethnographic writings in the reconstruction of non-European societies shortly before they were influenced by the West. Greek: ethnos = nation, people; graphe = writing, description (graphein = to write, describe). Latin: praesens = the time being, the present

ETHNOGRAPHIC SEMANTICS
The study of the vocabulary as a guide to the way in which members of a culture perceive their universe. Other terms are ethnoscience, folk taxonomy, structural semantics. Greek: ethnos = nation, people; graphe = writing, description (graphein = to write, describe); semantikos = belonging to signs (semeion = sign, token)

ETHNOGRAPHY
The descriptive study of a socio-cultural system based on fieldwork. Greek: ethnos = nation, people; graphe = writing, description (graphein = to write, describe)

ETHNOLOGY
In Sweden the study of the culture and society of the Nordic countries. However, the term has different meanings in different contexts. In the USA and France ethnology is synonymous with social/cultural anthropology. See Anthropology. Greek: ethnos = nation, people; logos = word, teaching, science

EVOLUTION
The gradual change of a society or a biological organism towards greater size and increased complexity. See Development. Latin: evolutio = unfolding (evolvere = to unfold, unroll)

EXOGAMY
A practice stipulating marriage outside a person's own group or social category, sometimes even specifying which outside group one must marry into. See Endogamy. Greek: exo = outside (the family); gamos = wedding, marriage (gamein = to marry)

EXORCISM
Expulsion by invocation, or other ritual, of evil spirits who dwell in a person, place or object causing illness and trouble. See Possession. Latin: exorcismus = exorcism (exorcizare = to drive away evil spirits, expel by ritual means; ex = out of, from; Orcus = Hades, Hell, The Underworld)

EXTENDED FAMILY
(1) An expansion of the household of the nuclear family (parents and dependent children). (2) A household group consisting of two or more nuclear families linked together through parents and children or siblings (joint family). Latin: extendere = stretch out, extend, increase; familia = household, family

Letter F

FAMILY
Group based on marriage and kinship. If defined as a localized group it may be a nuclear family or an extended family, its residency might be matrilocal, patrilocal or neolocal. Most individuals belong to at least two families during their lifetime, one by birth and one by marriage. Family may also refer to a non-residential group of kinsfolk living in different house-holds. See Extended Family. Latin: familia = household, family

FEMINIST ANTHROPOLOGY
Studies the interrelations between women and men, the role of gender in structuring human societies, their histories, ideologies, economic systems and political structures. Latin: femina = female, Greek: anthropos = man, human being; logos = word, teaching, science

FETISH
An object believed to embody, possess, or house a supernatural power. In everyday talk used for the worshipping of objects - as representing the original object or person, especially in the context of religion, economy and sexuality. See Amulet. Latin: factisius. Portuguese: feiticio = made up, artificial

FEUDALISM
A social and economic system of rights and duties based on land tenure and personal relationships where vassals, i.e. members of a privileged class, hold land in fief from lords on a personal loyalty basis in exchange for specific favours. The vassals command the labour of serfs. Feudal societies flourish especially in closed agricultural economies. Latin: foedus = treaty, compact, covenant

FICTIVE KINSHIP
Different types of social relations (e.g. blood brotherhood, god-parenthood) between unrelated persons modelled on genuine kinship relations. Terms and symbols refering to blood kin are used to establish a permanent closeness. Latin: fictus = formed, made up, imagined (fingere = to form, make up)

FIELDWORK
The main research method of anthropology in order to obtain first-hand information about a society or a group. A central part is 'participant observation' which means that the fieldworker takes part in the everyday life of the community being studied.

FUNCTIONALISM
In anthropology a theoretical interpretation of how the different institutions of a society are linked together and influence each other. Latin: functio = performing, executing (fungi = to perform, administer)

Letter G

GENEALOGY
Pedigree. A graphic description or an oral account of all the members in a family, lineage or clan. In many societies genealogy is the charter for descent groups, ensuring individuals services and resources as well as stipulating obligations. Specialists in genealogy are often engaged in settling disputes in preliterate societies where genealogical ties may be crucial. Greek: genea = birth, sex, race, generation; logos = word, teaching, science

GENDER
In social/cultural anthropological literature 'gender' is not seen as fixed by birth but as an expression of the social and cultural aspects of a person's identity. Latin: genus = kind, sex, gender

GHETTO
Originally the name of the area in Venice where the Jews resided during the Middle Ages. Today also a concentrated (ethnic) settlement in an urban context, often implying a slum area, unemployment and overcrowding.

GREAT APES
Gorilla, orangutang and chimpanzee. Also called hominids.

GREAT TRADITION
The culture of a major civilization in contrast to the 'little tradition' which is typical of local communities. Latin: traditio = giving up, handing over, teaching (tradere = to give up, hand over)

Letter H

HEAD HUNT
The taking of heads as trophies, based on the idea that the head is the seat of a person's personality and potency. Taking heads means assimilating these qualities. Headhunting was in some cultures connected with fertility and the condition for a man to take a wife.

HEADMAN
A person with legitimate political power over a village or an area. In a colonial context appointed by the colonial power.

HOMINID
Member of the family of Primates which include Man (Homo sapiens), his closest fossil ancestors (Homo erectus, Homo habilis), as well as the Great Apes. Latin: homo = man, human being; primas = of first rank

HOMO ERECTUS
Fossil forefather of Man who lived between 1.6 million years and 300,000 years ago in Asia, Africa and Europe. Latin: homo = human being; erectus = erect, upright

HOMO HABILIS
The hominid fossils of the earliest humans who in Tanzania about 2 million years ago used camp sites, were making stone tools and hunted large animals (mammals). Latin: homo = man, human being; habilis = skilful

HOMO SAPIENS
Means man the wise and is the human species of the Primates. Homo sapiens emerged from Homo erectus (the upright man). So far, most of the evi-dence of Homo sapiens comes from Ice Age Europe. See Neanderthal Man. Latin: homo = man, human being; sapiens = knowledgeable, wise

HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS
Modern man. Evidence that fully modern humans existed between 30,000-40,000 years ago comes from such widely separated areas as Borneo, Australia and Eurasia. See Cro-Magnon. Latin: homo = human being; sapiens = knowledgeable, wise

HORTICULTURE
Gardening as a supplement to hunting and gathering. Typically practised in forests where the soil is easy to break with digging sticks or hoes. The ecological balance is important as forest horticulturalists use fallowing techniques (called swidden cultivation, slash-and-burn or shifting cultivation) in order to grow for example rice, maize, manioc or sweet potatoes. See Shifting cultivation. Latin: hortus = garden; cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

HUNTER-GATHERERS
People who mainly rely on hunting, fishing and gathering of edible plants for their subsistence. Even when supplemented by cultivation the bulk of their subsistence mainly comes from collecting and hunting.

Letter I

IDEOLOGY
A world view and a cultural belief system about the structure and working of society in order to explain, rationalize or justify a way of acting or the conditions in a society. See Religion. Greek: idea = form, kind, class, idea; logos = word, teaching, science

IGLOO/IGLU
Inuit (Eskimo) word meaning snow house. Tradi-tional, domed winter house of snow blocks used by the Inuit in Canada and northwestern Greenland. Usually the home of a single Inuit family.

INCEST
Sexual relations between parents and their children or between siblings. Latin: incestum = sinful behaviour, unchastity (in + castus = (un)chaste)

INCEST TABOO
Prohibition of sexual relations between close relatives (father-daughter, mother-son, brother-sister) or others so defined. Incest taboo is acknowledged in anthropology as being almost universal. The taboo is however imposed differently in different societies. The breach of the taboo also provokes different reactions from society to society. Latin: incestum = sinful behaviour, unchastity (in + castus = (un)chaste). Tonga: t'apu = forbidden

INFANTICIDE
A kind of birth control. Infanticide, the killing of a newborn child, particularly female infants, occurred among hunter-gatherers as well as in agricultural societies, in order to prevent increase of population when the subsistence base was insufficient. The practice of infanticide for economic reasons still occurs. Latin: infans = child, caedere = kill

INITIATION
The ritual passing from one state to another (such as from childhood to that of being a young adult) or the ritualized admission to a secret society or cult. See Rite of Passage. Latin: inire, init = go in, introduce

Letter J

JOKING RELATIONSHIP
A relationship of otherwise unacceptable familiarity and license between specific kinsmen or specific ethnic groups.

Letter K

KINDRED
A person's relatives within a certain range. A bilateral kindred are relatives linked to a person on both the mother's and the father's side, a common kin system in Western society. In Sweden this kin group rarely includes relatives beyond second cousins. See Cognatic Descent.

KIN GROUP
A social group based on common descent or kinship.

KINSHIP
Relations based or modelled on the socially/culturally defined ties between parents and children extended to siblings and other relatives, established by marriage (affinity) or by adoption. The importance of kinship varies among different cultures.

KINSHIP DIAGRAM
In contrast to a genealogy, which shows all the mem-bers of a family or descent group, a kinship diagram illustrates the principles for descent as well as affiliation (marriage). Greek: diagramma = figure marked out by lines, list, register

KULA
A kind of reciprocal exchange that was/is institutionalized and socially very important in Melanesia. Special items surrounded by lore and myth, such as armlets and necklaces made of shell, circulated between permanent partners whose return gifts had to be of higher value than the ones received. Every sea voyage increased the value of the items. The exchange took part in wide Kula rings linking the widespread societies of the Western Pacific islands together. Under the auspices of the prestigious Kula exchange, ordinary trade could be carried out. The Kula system still exists as an important part of the ceremonial life.

Letter L

LAMAISM
The special kind of Buddhism that developed in Tibet. Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of lamaism and a reincarnation of his predecessor. All Tibetan monks are addressed as 'Lama', which means the Elevated One.

LEGEND
A traditional story about special persons, supernaturals or places, thought to have a basis in historical facts. See Myth. Latin: legenda = a story to be read (legere = to read)

LEVIRATE
A system where the brother of a dead man marries the widow in order not to break the relationship between the two kin groups. See Sororate. Latin: levir = brother-in-law

LIMINAL
A state or a category that is in-between or outside the normal states or categories. It may be a transitional state between social categories - as the seclusion for those to be initiated - or a category permanently outside the normal framework. See Rite of Passage. Trickster. Latin: liminaris = belonging to the threshold or door (limen = threshold, door, limit)

LINEAGE
Descent group consisting of people who trace descent from an ancestress or ancestor through known links. The lineage follows either the female or the male line, is thus either matrilineal or patrilineal. Latin: linea = line

LITERACY
The ability to write and read written texts. Latin: litteratus = lettered, learned (littera = letter)

LITTLE TRADITION
The culture of local communities or regions in relation to the Great Tradition of a surrounding, more complex society. See Great tradition. Latin: traditio = giving up, handing over, teaching (tradere = to give up, hand over)

LONGHOUSE
A collective or multi-family dwelling house - often on stilts - characteristic of some traditional cultures in the Americas and Asia. The longhouse can be seen as the physical expression of the shared economic, social and religious life of the clan, kinship group or families occupying it.

Letter M

MACHISMO
Ideal of manliness in many Latin American societies where men assert themselves through bragging, amorous conquests, aggressivity and charm in order to gain a reputation for virility. Spanish: macho = masculine

MAGIC
A technique to manipulate and/or influence the supernatural. The magician manipulates - with good or evil intent - the chains of cause and effect of mysterious powers for his own benefit or on behalf of his client. See Witchcraft. Sorcery. Greek: magike = the art of magic, sorcery

MANA
A kind of sacred power in nature, within an object or a person. Originally a Melanesian concept. See Taboo.

MARKET
(1) The economic institution which is assumed to be the propelling force behind the exchange of goods, services and money in a market economy. (2) A marketplace where people gather to trade.

MARRIAGE
An agreement between a man and a woman and/or between their respective families or descent grops. It establishes legal rights, the birth status of children, and reproduces society, biologically and socially. See Polygamy. Polyandry. Polygyny. Sororate. Levirate. Bridewealth. Dowry.

MATERIAL CULTURE
The physical expressions of a society, a culture or an individual - such as tools, houses, ornaments. Latin: materialis = belonging to matter, material (materia = matter, stuff); cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

MATRIARCHY
There are no genuine matriarchies in the sense of matrilinear societies in which women have the same role and status as men have in patrilinear societies. Even in societies where descent follows the female line the economic and political power are mainly in the hands of men. Greek: mater = mother (= Latin); arche = beginning, government (archein = to be first, begin, govern)

MATRILATERAL
Based on relationship on the mother's side. The opposite is patrilateral. Latin: mater = mother (= Greek); lateralis = belonging to the side (latus = side)

MATRILINEAGE
Descent links traced in the female line where the actual connections to the ancestress are known. The opposite is patrilineage. Latin: mater = mother (= Greek); linea = line, thread, lineage

MATRILINEAL DESCENT
Principle of descent from a known ancestress traced in the female line. Latin: mater = mother (= Greek); linealis = belonging to the line (linea = line, thread, lineage); descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend)

MATRILOCAL
Residence of a married couple with the wife's kin. The term uxorilocal is preferable. Latin: mater = mother (= Greek); localis = belonging to a place (locus = place); uxor = wife

MEANS OF PRODUCTION
The technology, i.e. tools and human resources that in Marxist terminology create goods and/or surplus value. Latin: productio = bringing forth, production (pro = forth, forward; ducere = to bring, lead)

MEDICINE MAN
Female or male person in possession of supernatural healing powers and knowledge of remedies/drugs, especially herbal medicines. His/her function is often combined with that of the priest or shaman. See Magic. Latin: medicina = the art of healing, medicine, surgery (medicare = to cure, heal)

MEN'S HOUSE
Collective house for men, often situated in the middle of a village with the houses of women and families on the periphery. Serves as a 'club house' for unmarried men and might house young boys during their initiation seclusion. It is often the center for community worship and for the men's secret societies and is found in societies which spiritually and physically separate men and women.

MESOLITHIC
Archaeological term for the period between the late Paleolithic and the advent of agriculture which started to develop some 10,000-12,000 years ago. Greek: mesos = middle, in the middle; lithikos = to do with stone (lithos = stone)

MESSIANIC MOVEMENT
Movement under the leadership of a spiritual inter-mediary, a Messiah, with a utopian vision that pro-mises a new world to its members. See Cargo cult. Hebrew: Messias = The Anointed One, Messiah (= Greek Christos). Latin: movere = to move, set in motion

MILLENNIAL MOVEMENT
A social and/or political movement that promises a future paradise on earth. Also called millenarian movement. See Cargo cult. Latin: millenarius = containing a thousand (mille = 1000); movere = to move, set in motion

MODE OF PRODUCTION
(1) In Marxist theory the system formed by the means of production (technology, human resources) and the social relations. (2) System of subsistence. Latin: productio = bringing forth, production (pro = forth, forward; ducere = to bring, lead)

MOIETY
A division of a tribal society into two groups or categories. French: moitié = half.

MYTH
A myth explains the origin of the world or social institutions, or transcends social and existential conflicts in a metaphoric narrative - usually of unknown origin - about fantastic events involving gods or supernatural beings. A people's myths reflect, express and validate the people's self-image and explain natural and social phenomena. See Legend. Greek: mythos = word, speech, saying, story (that cannot be proven true or false)

MYTHOLOGY
The study of myth and the body of myths in a particular religious tradition. Greek: mythos = word, speech, saying, story: logos = word, teaching, science

Letter N

NOMADISM
Ett levnadssätt som innebär förflyttning (ofta säsongsvis) mellan olika platser för att antingen söka betesmarker, jaga och samla ätliga växter eller för att bedriva handel. Jämför Pastoralism. Grekiska: nomas = omkringströvande efter föda

NEANDERTHAL MAN
The earliest member of Homo sapiens (Man) who lived in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa some 130,000 to 40,000 years ago.

NEOCOLONIALISM
An unequal relation of economic dependency between industrial nations and former colonies. Greek: neos = new. Latin: colonia = possession in land, settlement, colony (colere = to cultivate)

NEOLITHIC PERIOD
The New Stone Age which started about 10,000-12,000 years ago. The 'Neolithic revolution' refers to the period when agriculture started to become the main activity of the economy. The term refers to archaeological finds of new types of stone tools. Greek: neos = new; lithikos = to do with stone (lithos = stone)

NEOLOCAL RESIDENCE
A married couple establishing their own separate household. Greek: neos = new. Latin: localis = belonging to a place (locus = place); residere = to remain sitting, abide, rest

NETWORK
Social relations linking people together. When charting and studying a network the starting point is usually one particular individual.

NOMADISM
A way of life of peoples indicating movement (in cycles or periods) in order either to find grazing land, to hunt and collect edible plants or to trade. See Pastoralism. Greek: nomas = roaming about for pasture

NON-UNILINEAL DESCENT
Descent traced both in the female and the male line to an ancestress and ancestor. Alternative term to cognatic descent. Latin: non = not; unus = one; linealis = belonging to a line (linea = line, thread, lineage); descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend)

NUCLEAR FAMILY
Usually understod as wife, husband, and their biological and/or adopted children. Latin: nucleus = nut, kernel; familia = household, family

Letter O

ORDEAL
A test to establish the truth of some claim or accu-sation. The result is believed to reflect the judgement of supernatural powers. The main types are ordeals by divination, physical test or ritual battle. Old English: ordal, cf. German Urteil = judgement

Letter P

PARALLEL COUSINS
Children of two brothers or two sisters. Mother's Sister's or Father's Brother's child. See Cross-Cousin. Greek: parallelos = beside one another, side by side (para = beside; allos = another)

PARIAH
Individuals or groups of a low social and religious status, traditionally regarded as untouchables and outcasts. Originally the name of a South Indian stratum outside (below) the Indian caste system. See Caste.

PASTORALISM
A way of life where people gain their major subsistence from herding of animals (such as camels, reindeer, sheep). Often seasonal. See Transhumance. Latin: pastoralis = belonging to herdsman or shepherds (pastor = shepherd, herdsman)

PATRILATERAL
Relationship on the father's side. The opposite is matrilateral. Latin: pater = father (= Greek); lateralis = belonging to the side (latus = side)

PATRILINEAGE
Descent group united by descent in the male line where the actual connection to the ancestor is supposedly known. The opposite is matrilineage. Latin: pater = father (= Greek); linea = line, thread, lineage)

PATRILINEAL DESCENT
A principle of descent traced from a known ancestor in the male line. Also called agnatic descent. A person related in this way is called an agnate. Latin: pater = father (= Greek); linealis belonging to the line (linea = line, thread, lineage); descensus = descent (descendere = to move downwards, descend); agnatus = belonging to by birth, blood relation on the father's side

PATRILOCAL
Residence of a married couple with the husband's kin. The term 'virilocal' is preferable. Latin: pater = father (= Greek); localis = belonging to a place (locus = place); vir = man, husband

PATRON
A person in a power position who helps and protects clients through his/her influence and generosity in exchange for their labour and/or support. Latin: patronus = protector

PIDGIN
A contact language that might develop in the meeting between speakers of different languages. A well established form of Pidgin, tok pisin, can be found in New Guinea. Pidgin is a Chinese distortion of the word 'business'.

POLLUTION
A belief (as part of an ideology) that a category of persons, some state or substance is ritually unclean and thus contaminating. See Taboo. Caste. Latin: pollutio = defilement, contamination (polluere = to defile, pollute)

POLYANDRY
Marriage of a woman to more than one man. See Polygamy. Polygyny. Greek: polyandrios = of or connected with many men (polys = many; aner = man)

POLYGAMY
The practice of having more than one spouse. See Polyandry. Polygyny. Greek: polygamia = polygamy (polys = many; gamos = wedding, marriage)

POLYGYNY
Marriage of a man to more than one woman. See Polygamy. Polyandry. Greek: polygynaios = having many wifes (polys = many; gyne = woman, wife)

POSSESSION
The presence in an individual of spirits, gods or demons, manifesting themselves in the person's state of trance. Possession is often ritually induced, for example by drumming. Shamanism is not possession as the shaman can control the helping spirit. See Voodoo. Latin: possessio = taking possession of, possession (possidere = to take possession of, own, occupy, possess)

POTLATCH
Formerly, a ceremonial feast of distribution, where valuables are given in order to affirm and reaffirm the social status of the host, practised among the Indians of the American Northwest Pacific Coast, especially the Kwakiutl. The host of the next potlatch must then reciprocate by holding a more impressive feast. See Kula. Big Man System. Chinook: potshatl = gift

PRESCRIPTIVE MARRIAGE
Marriage system which serves to consolidate group solidarity or prevent dispersion of property. The required marriage partner may be from the same (endogamy) or from a different (exogamy) descent group or may be a cross-cousin or a parallel cousin. Latin: praescriptivus = relating to a legal exception (praescribere = to write before, previously)

PRIMOGENITURE
A principle where the oldest child, usually the son, has the right to inherit the family property. Latin: primus = first, genitura = birth

PURITY AND POLLUTION
A religious phenomenon, and a system of thought, where the concepts of purity and pollution are in-separable from and complementary to each other. Rules of purity/impurity are for example observed in critical rites of passage. The rites of purification can either prevent impurity or restore purity. The Hindu caste system is based on the concepts of purity/impurity. See Caste. Rite of Passage. Latin: puritas = cleanness, purity (purus = clean, pure); pollu-tio = defilement, contamination (polluere = to defile, pollute, make unclean)

PUEBLO
A village consisting of house compounds, made of adobe (sundried clay) bricks, characteristic of the Indians of the U.S. Southwest. Spanish: pueblo = village

Letter R

RANK
A place in a hierarchy. A type of social stratification of individuals or groups belonging to a society/community. Rank is determined by such things as power, wealth, knowledge, family position, ritual or religious purity/impurity.

RECIPROCITY
A mode of exchange (particularly in kind) as well as an expression of a special relationship between giver and receiver, which results from the mutual obligation of the partners to continue the exchange. Latin: reciprocus = turning back the same way, returning (recipiere = to take back, receive)

REDISTRIBUTION
A way to centrally collect or extract surplus commodities, such as taxes, tribute and food, in a hierarchy. Collected at the top of the system, the surplus is then allocated downward again. See Big Man System. Potlatch. Latin: redistributio = redivision, redistribution (re = again, back; distribuere = to divide)

RELIGION
Religion provides a model of the world and the cos-mos and explains creation and world order. It also provides a model for action and a moral orientation towards the world, the cosmos, and one's own society, as well as a validation of the moral and social order. It provides comfort and psychological support in the face of the frailty of existence. See Ideology. Latin: religio = reverence for God or the gods

RESIDENCE RULES
Define where and with whom certain social categor-ies of people should live. See Patrilocal. Matrilocal. Neolocal. Latin: residere = to remain sitting, abide, rest; regula = ruler, rule (regere = to lead, guide)

RITE OF PASSAGE
A ritual marking the passage from one social state to another. Examples are name-giving ceremonies, initiations (at puberty or into secret societies), weddings, funerals, and coronations. It also denotes the culturally ordered passage of time like harvest festivals and New Year celebrations. See Initiation. Liminality. Latin: ritus = religious ceremony, rite, ritual

RITUAL
A stylized and repetitive pattern of behaviour, usually within a sacred sphere. Latin: ritualis = belonging to the rite (ritus = religious ceremony, rite)

ROLE
A way of behaving, connected with and reflecting a certain social position.

Letter S

SACRIFICE
A ritual act where a gift, such as an animal or foodstuff, is made to some supernatural being with whom the giver seeks communion. Latin: sacrificium = sacrifice (sacer = holy; facere = to make, do, perform)

SAVANNA
Open grasslands with occasional trees. Characteristic of East Africa.

SECRET SOCIETY
Cultic, religious and/or political community (usually consisting of men) characterized by the secrecy surrounding them. The members are initiated into the lowest level of the hierarchy and make vows not to reveal the shared secret symbols and rituals and/or esoteric (secret, confidential) knowledge. Often functions as a society in society with considerable influence. See Rite of Passage. Latin: secretus = separated, apart (secernere = to put apart, separate); societas = fellowship, union, community, society

SEMIOTICS
The study of the language of signs and symbols in various fields like linguistics and anthropology. Greek: semiotikos = belonging to the sign (semeion = sign, token)

SHAMAN/SHAMANISM
A female or male ritual practitioner who is believed to have special powers, and through training has learnt to communicate (usually during trance) with the supernaturals and to perform curing rites for the benefit of individuals and/or the whole community. Usually, the shaman's soul leaves the body and travels to the sky or the underworld. See Possession. Tunguz: saman

SHARE CROPPING
A system where a tenant farmer/agricultural worker who works the land of a landlord as tenancy pays a certain share of the crop, livestock or livestock products.

SHIFTING CULTIVATION
An agricultural technique where the natural vegetation of the forest is cleared by fire and then replaced by cultivated plants. To regain the fertility of the soil the cultivation must shift between sites to enable the maturation of a secondary forest. Also known as swidden farming or slash-and-burn agriculture. See Horticulture. Latin: cultura = cultivation, culture (colere = cultivate)

SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Studies different societies and cultures with a focus on man as having created these. Social Anthropology (in Sweden) tended to focus on the social relations between people and institutions in a given society. Nowadays, the cultural contents are given equal attention. Social Anthropology thus does not differ much from Cultural Anthropology, both generally being called Anthropology. Latin: socialis = belong-ing to society (socius = fellow; societas = fellowship, union, society). Greek: anthropos = man, human being; logos = word, teaching, science

SOCIALIZATION
The process during which an individual becomes a member of society by developing the skills and acquiring the knowledge that is needed to participate in it. Latin: socialis = belonging to society (socius = fellow; societas = fellowship, union, society)

SOCIOLOGY
The study of the nature, causes and effects of social relations among individuals and between individuals and groups. Latin: socialis = belonging to society (socius = fellow; societas = fellowship, union, society). Greek: logos = word, teaching, science

SORORATE
The marriage of a sister/sisters (or a woman classified as a sister) to the husband of her deceased sister in order to continue the contract between the descent groups of the husband and the wife. See Levirate. Latin: soror = sister

SORCERY
Harmful magic that is deliberately used by experts against their own enemies or those of their clients. To find out who has used this evil force, oracles may be consulted to find the culprit. A magician may counteract sorcery as well as witchcraft. Sorcery and/or witchcraft are often seen as the main causes of sickness and death. See Witchcraft. Magic.

STRATIFICATION
Social inequality which ranks and divides people depending upon their economic, political and spiritual power or status. Class denotes economic/political stratification; caste denotes a spiritual classification supported by an ideology of purity/impurity. Race, on the other hand, is based on assumptions about biology. Latin: stratum = stretched out, layer (sternere = to stretch out); facere = to make, do

SWASTIKA
A type of cross found in the Indus Valley civilization (about 2000 B.C.) and appearing in many ancient cultures. The significance of the swastika is disputed, one interpretation being a symbol of the sun. Since Vedic time until today, it is a sacred sign in Hindu tradition, symbolizing the good Vishnu. In the Buddhist tradition it signifies the Wheel of the Law, in China prosperity and long life. The swastika used in Nazi Germany is a mirror image of the ancient Indian sign. Sanskrit: svasti = well-being

SYMBIOSIS
The mutual interdependence and complementarity of two populations or organisms within a system. Greek: symbiosis = living with, companionship (syn = (together) with; bios = life, living)

SYMBOL
A sign that conventionally stands for something (a company's logo) or evokes complex emotional associations (the cross, the national flag). A ritual symbol is filled with meanings, social as well as emotional. Greek: symbolon = sign, mark, token (syn = (together) with); ballein = to throw)

Letter T

TABOO
From a Polynesian word meaning 'forbidden'; Used about beings and objects one should avoid because of their sacred power. See Mana.

TOTEMISM
The symbolic connection/identification between an individual or a social group (lineage or clan) and a certain kind of animal, plant or other natural phenomenon, a totem. Algonquian (Chippewa): ote = parents, relations, ototeman = his brother/sister kin

TOTEM POLE
Exists only among the West Coast Indians of North America. The poles are emblems of families or clans and/or might depict historical or mythological events. People were never - as in adventure books on Indians - tied to totem poles, nor did Indians dance around them. See Totemism.

TRANSHUMANCE
The seasonal movement of pastoralists in order to find grazing land for their cattle. Latin: trans = across, over, beyond; humus = earth, land, country TRIBE Formerly understood as small-scale societies which produce food with relatively simple technologies. Anthropologists today use the designation 'ethnic group' for societies with a common ancestry, language, culture and often territory, irrespective of size. It has been debated whether 'tribes' have existed except in a theoretical relation to state societies. See Ethnicity. Latin: tribus = tribe

TRICKSTER
A person or being who transcends boundaries and acts unpredictably and ambiguously (i.e. as divine fool, clown, mythical mediator) found in many cultures. The trickster can be friend or foe and contradicts the roles of society and crosses established boundaries to remind people of them. Trickster stories are often creation myths.

Letter U

ULTIMOGENITURE
A system of inheritance where the youngest child, often the son, is the heir. The opposite is primogeniture. Latin: ultimus = the last; genitura = birth

UXORILOCAL RESIDENCE
See Matrilocal

Letter V

VARNA
Means colour and refers to the four major social categories in Hindu ideology: Brahmans who study and teach the holy Veda scripts; Kshatriya who protect the people; Vaishya who keep cattle, till the soil or trade; Shudra who serve the three higher varna. See Caste.

WEREANIMAL
Partly human being, partly animal - a fearsome, night-roaming beast hungry for human blood, which symbolises man's good as well as evil nature. Were-animals are for example the European Werewolf, the South-American Jaguar, and the Asian Weretiger.

VIRILOCAL RESIDENCE
See Patrilocal Residence.

WITCHCRAFT
In anthropology understood as harmful powers operating through humans who do not seek the powers actively and by free will. Sorcery or magic, on the other hand, stands for a volontary seeking of power. See Sorcery. Ordeal. Magic.

VOODOO
Religion in Haiti combining African traditional beliefs with Christian elements. The participants in a voodoo ceremony might become possessed by spirits who communicate through them. Voodoo is neither magic or sorcery, nor does it involve uncontrolled orgiastic behaviour or cannibalism as is often depicted in novels and films. See Possession. Fon (Benin, West Africa): vodu = spirit

Letter Y

YURT/YURTA
Turkish word för dwelling place, home, land. A round, tentlike house used by the pastoralists of Central Asia when grazing their herds. Sometimes a permanent dwelling house. Covered with skin, felt or handwoven textiles.

2006-10-03